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Operator Overloading

Overview

C++ allows the programmer to overload most operators to work with user-defined classes. This is intended to make code more readable and writable by allowing the use of familiar operators in a familiar manner, but with our own classes and objects.

• What is operator overloading?

• Overloading the assignment operator (=)

  • Copy semantics

  • Move semantics

• Overloading operators as member functions

• Overloading operators as global functions

• Overloading stream insertion (<<) and extraction operators (>>)

What is Operator Overloading?

• Using traditional operators such as +, =, *, etc. with user-defined types.

• Allows user-defined types to behave and feel similar to built-in types

• Can make code more readable and writable

• Not done automatically (except for the assignment operator)

  They must be explicitly defined.

• The only operator that the compiler provides a default implementation for is the assignment operator (=). This is because the compiler must be able to assign one object to another. All the other operators that can be overloaded must be explicitly defined by the programmer.

• Suppose we have a Number class that models any number.

  Using functions:

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  Number result = multiply(add(a, b), divide(c, d));
  

  Using member functions:

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  Number result = (a.add(b)).multiply(c.divide(d));
  

  These statements are very unreadable and very complicated to write. Why can't we use the basic arithmetic symbols we have been using since elementary school now? $\to$$\to$ We can! And that's the power of operator overloading.

  Using overloaded operators:

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  Number result = (a + b) * (c / d);
  

  Now it looks and feels and behaves like the built-in C++ types.

• Operator overloading is syntactic sugar. Behind the scenes, we're still calling functions.

What Operators can be Overloaded?

• The majority of C++'s operators can be overloaded.

• The following operators CANNOT be overloaded:

  :: (scope resolution operator)

  :? (conditional operator)

  .* (pointer to member operator)

  . (dot operator)

  sizeof

• Remember, just because an operator can be overloaded doesn't mean you should. Don't overload it unless it makes sense and makes your code more usable, more readable and more writable.

• We can make the operator mean anything we want. We want to make sure that when we do overload operators it makes sense and the users of the class know about it.

Basic Rules of Operator Overloading

• Precedence and Associativity CANNOT be changed.

• "-arity" CANNOT be changed. (i.e., can't make the division operator "unary")

• Can't overload operators for primitive type (e.g., int, double, etc.)

• Can't create new operators

• [], (), ->, and the assignment operator (=) MUST be declared as member functions.

• Other operators can be declared as member functions or global functions.

Examples of Operator Overloading

Operator Overloading used on C++ Built-In Types:

• int

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  a = b + c
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  a < b
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  std::cout << a
  

• double

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  a = b + c
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  a < b
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  std::cout << a
  

• long

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  a = b + c
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  a < b
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  std::cout << a
  

Operator Overloading used on User-Defined Types:

• std::string

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  s1 = s2 + s3
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  s1 < s2
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  std::cout << s1
  

• Player

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  p1 < p2
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  p1 == p2
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  std::cout << p1
  

• Mystring

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  s1 = s2 + s3
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  s1 < s2
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  s1 == s2
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  std::cout << s1
  

  Mystring class declaration: (Incomplete)

  See Complete Mystring Class section for the complete class implementation.

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  #ifndef MYSTRING_H
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  #define MYSTRING_H
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  class Mystring
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  {
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  private:
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      char *str;    // pointer to a char[] that holds a C-style string
  8
  
  9
  public:
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      Mystring();                           // default constructor
  11
      Mystring(const char *s);              // parameterized constructor
  12
      Mystring(const Mystring &source);     // copy constructor
  13
      ~Mystring();                          // destructor
  14
      void display() const;
  15
      int get_length() const;               // getter
  16
      const char* get_str() const;          // getter
  17
  };
  18
  
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  #endif // MYSTRING_H
  

  Mystring class implementation: (Incomplete)

  See Complete Mystring Class section for the complete class implementation.

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  #include <cstring>    // behind the scenes, Mystring class uses c-string library
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  #include <iostream>
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  #include "Mystring.h"
  4
  
  5
  // default constructor
  6
  Mystring::Mystring()
  7
      :str(nullptr)
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  {
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      str = new char[1];
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      *str = '\0';
  11
  }
  12
  
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  // parameterized constructor
  14
  Mystring::Mystring(const char *s)
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      :str(nullptr)
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  {
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      // if an empty string has been passed, create an empty string ""
  18
      if (s == nullptr)
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      {
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          str = new char[1];
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          *str = '\0';
  22
      }
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      else
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      {
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          str = new char[std::strlen(s) + 1];
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          std::strcpy(str, s);
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      }
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  }
  29
  
  30
  // copy constructor
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  Mystring::Mystring(const Mystring &source)
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      : str(nullptr)
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  {
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      str = new char[std::strlen(source.str) + 1];
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      std::strcpy(str, source.str);
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  }
  37
  
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  // destructor
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  Mystring::~Mystring()
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  {
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      delete[] str;
  42
  }
  43
  
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  // display method
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  void Mystring::display() const 
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  {
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      std::cout << str << ":" << get_length() << std::endl;
  48
  }
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  // length getter
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  int Mystring::get_length() const 
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  { 
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      return std::strlen(str);
  54
  }
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  // string getter
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  const char* Mystring::get_str() const
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  {
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      return str;
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  }
  

  Test driver:

  See Complete Mystring Class section for the complete class implementation.

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  #include <iostream>
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  #include "Mystring.h"
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  int main(int argc, char *argv[])
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  {
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      Mystring empty;           // default constructor
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      Mystring larry("Larry");  // overloaded constructor
  8
      Mystring stooge(larry);   // copy constructor
  9
  
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      empty.display();
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      larry.display();
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      stooge.display();
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      return 0;
  15
  }
  

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  :0
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  Larry:5
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  Larry:5
  

Copy Assignment Operator Overloading

• When you don't provide a user-defined copy assignment operator, C++ will generate a default assignment operator used for assigning one object to another.

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  Mystring s1("Frank");
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  Mystring s2 = s1;    // NOT assignment because s2 hasn't been created yet!
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                       // same as Mystring s2(s1);
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  s2 = s1;             // assignment since s2 has already been created and initialized
  

  Don't confuse "initialization" with "assignment". Initialization is done by constructors when we create new objects.

• Default behavior is memberwise assignment (shallow copy).

• If we have raw pointer data member, we must deep copy.

• Copy assignment operator works with L-value references.

• Overloading the copy assignment operator (deep copy):

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  Type &Type::operator=(const Type &rhs);
  

  Example:

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  Mystring& Mystring::operator=(const Mystring &rhs);   // method name is 'operator='
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  s2 = s1;              // we write this
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  s2.operator=(s1);     // compiler will convert 's2 = s1' into this
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                        // 'operator=' method is called
  

  Returning the reference is important because we don't want to make an extra copy of what we are returning and we want to allow chain assignments such as s1 = s2 = s3.

• The object on the left-hand side of an assignment statement is referred to by the this pointer. The object on the right-hand side is being passed into the method. The semantics is that the object on the LHS is going to be overwritten by the object on the RHS.

  1. First, we need to deallocate anything it refers to on the heap. (If we don't do this, we'll orphan this memory and end up with a memory leak.)

  2. Then we need to allocate the space in the LHS object for the RHS side object's data, and then we finally copy the data over to the left side from the right side.

• Overloaded copy assignment operator for Mystring class:

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  Mystring& Mystring::operator=(const Mystring &rhs)
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  {
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      // check for self assignment
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      if (this == &rhs)
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          return *this;     // if so, return current object
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      delete[] str;         // deallocate storage for 'this->str' since we are overwriting it
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                            // delete[] this->str; also works
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      str = new char[std::strlen(rhs.str) + 1];  // allocate storage for the deep copy
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      std::strcpy(str, rhs.str);    // perform the copy
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      return *this;     // return the LHS object by reference to allow chain assignment
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  }
  

• Test driver: See Complete Mystring Class secction for the complete class implementation.

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  #include <iostream>
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  #include "Mystring.h"
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  int main(int argc, char *argv[])
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  {
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      Mystring a("Hello");      // parameterized constructor
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      Mystring b;               // default constructor 
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      b = a;                    // copy assignment operator
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                                // b.operator=(a)
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      b = "This is a test";     // b.operator=("This is a test");
  11
  
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      return 0;
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  }
  

  In line $10$$10$, the copy assignment operator will be called, a temporary object will be created and it will be assigned over. Once the assignment is done, the destructor will be called to destroy the temporary object.

   

Move Assignment Operator (=) Overloading

• You can choose to overload the move assignment operator.

  • C++ will use the copy assignment operator (copy assignment operator) by default, if necessary.

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    Mystring s1;              // empty string
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    s1 = Mystring("Frank");   // move assignment will be called since we are providing R-value reference
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         -----------------                                                             -----------------
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         temporary object is created                                                        "Frank"
    

• If we have raw pointer we should overload the move assignment operator for efficiency.

• Move assignment operator works with R-value references. (Think temporary unnamed objects!)

• Overloading the move assignment operator:

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  Type& Type::operator=(Type &&rhs);
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                             --
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                             to tell the compiler that the right-side object is an R-value
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                             so the right-side value will be an R-value reference
  

  Note that the RHS object CANNOT be const since we'll be modifying that object when we move the data. (i.e., Nullifying the pointer)

  Example:

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  Mystring& Mystring::operator=(Mystring &&rhs);
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  s1 = Mystring("Joe");     // move operator= called
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  s1 = "Frank"              // move operator= called
  

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  Mystring &Mystring::operator=(Mystring &&rhs)
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  {
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      // check for self assignment
  4
      if (this == &rhs)     // self assignment
  5
          return *this;     // return current object
  6
  
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      delete[] str;         // deallocate current storage
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      str = rhs.str;        // steal the pointer (NOT a deep copy)
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      rhs.str = nullptr;    // null out the rhs object (to prevent memory leak)
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      return *this;         // return current object
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  }
  

  Very similar to the copy assignment operator except that with move assignment operator we are NOT doing the deep copy. Instead, we're simply stealing the pointer and then nulling out the RHS pointer. Much more efficient (less overhead) than copy assignment.

• Test driver:

  See Complete Mystring Class secction for the complete class implementation.

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  #include <iostream>
  2
  #include "Mystring.h"
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  4
  int main(int argc, char *argv[])
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  {
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      Mystring a("Hello");      // overloaded (parameterized) constructor
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      a = Mystring("Hola");     // overloaded constructor then move assignment
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                                // - a temporary unnamed object gets created with "Hola"
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                                //   and destroyed after move assignment operation is done
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      a = "Bonjour"             // overloaded constructor then move assignment
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                                // - a temporary unnamed object gets created with
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                                //   "Bonjour" and destroyed after move assignment
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                                //   operation is done
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      return 0;
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  }
  

• If the move constructor, move assignment operator are not defined, this code will invoke copy constructor (or the copy assignment operator) instead.

Overloading Operators as Member Functions

• C++ allows us to overload operators as

  • Member functions

  • Global non-member functions

  Here, let's take a look at overloading operators as member functions.

• Overloading unary operators as member functions (++, --, -, !):

  Unary operators work on one operand.

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  ReturnType Type::operatorOp();
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                           --
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                           operator goes here!
  

  In the case the we have to return a new object from the method, we'll return the new object by value.

  Example:

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  Number Number::operator-() const;     
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  Number Number::operator++();          // pre-increment
  3
  Number Number::operator++(int);       // post-increment
  4
  bool Number::operator!() const;
  5
  
  6
  Number n1(100);
  7
  Number n2 = -n1;      // n1.operator-()
  8
  n2 = ++n1;            // n1.operator++()
  9
  n2 = n1++;            // n1.operator++(int)
  

  Notice that unary member functions have an empty parameter list. This is because the object we're working with is referred to by the this pointer. Also, the keyword int is used in the parameters for the post-increment to differentiate it from the pre-increment.

  Example:

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  Mystring jack1{"JACK"};
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  Mystring jack2;
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  jack1.display();    // JACK
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  jack2 = -jack1;     // jack1.operator-()
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  jack1.display();    // JACK
  8
  jack2.display();    // jack
  

  Note what the negation operator - does when used with a string object.

• Overloading binary operators as member functions (+, -, ==, !=, <, >, etc.):

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  ReturnType Type::operatorOp(const Type &rhs);
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                           --
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                           operator goes here!
  

  Example:

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  Number Number::operator+(const Number &rhs) const;
  2
  Number Number::operator-(const Number &rhs) const;
  3
  bool Number::operator==(const Number &rhs) const;
  4
  bool Number::operator<(const Number &rhs) const;
  5
  
  6
  Number n1(100), n2(200);
  7
  Number n3 = n1 + n2;      // n1.operator+(n2)
  8
  n3 = n1 - n2;             // n1.operator-(n2)
  9
  if (n1 == n2) . . .       // n1.operator==(n2)
  

  Now we have a single parameter in the method parameter list. Of course the this pointer points to the LHS operand.

  Implementation of operator==:

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  bool Mystring::operator==(const Mystring &rhs) const
  2
  {
  3
      if (std::strcmp(str, rhs.str) == 0)   // <cstring>
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          return true;
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      else
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          return false;
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  }
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  // if (s1 == s2)      // s1 and s2 are Mystring objects
  

  Implementation of operator-: (make lowercase)

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  Mystring Mystring::operator-() const
  2
  {
  3
      char *buff = new char[std::strlen(str) + 1];    // Allocate memory space
  4
      std::strcpy(buff, str);                         // Copy the string
  5
      for (size_t i = 0; std::strlen(buff); i++)      // Make each character lowercase
  6
          buff[i] = std::tolower(buff[i]);            // tolower() is in <ccpyte> header file
  7
      Mystring temp(buff);    // Create a Mystring obj using lowercase string as the initializer
  8
      delete[] buff;          // Delete the buffer created to prevent leak memory
  9
      return temp;            // Return the newly created Mystring object
  10
  }
  

  Implementation of operator+: (concatenation)

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  Mystring Mystring::operator+(const Mystring &rhs) const
  2
  {
  3
      size_t buff_size = std::strlen(str) + std::strlen(rhs.str) + 1;
  4
      char *buff = new char[buff_size];   // Allocate large enough memory space for two strings
  5
      std::strcpy(buff, str);
  6
      std::strcat(buff, rhs.str);
  7
      Mystring temp(buff);
  8
      delete[] buff;
  9
      return temp;
  10
  }
  

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  Mystring larry("Larry");
  2
  Mystring moe("Moe");
  3
  Mystring stooges(" is one of the three stooges");
  4
  
  5
  Mystring result = larry + stooges;    // larry.operator+(stooges);
  6
  result = moe + " is also a stooge";   // moe.operator+("is also a stooge");
  7
  
  8
  result = "Moe" + stooges;             // Illegal! "Meo".operator+(stooges) 
  9
                                        //          -----
  10
                                        //   not an obj of the class this fcn is called on
  

  Notice that we can also use c-style strings on the right-hand side. This is because we have a mystring constructor that can construct mystring objects from a c-style string.

• The only limitation to overloading operators as member functions is that the object on the left-hand side must be an object of the class you are using.

Overloading Operators as Global Functions

• These are no longer member functions, so we do not have this pointer referring to the object on the left-hand side.

• Since we very often need access to private attributes in the objects, these non-member functions are often declared as friend functions of the class in many applications. (This isn't absolutely necessary since we can still use getter functions to access attribute values.)

• When you have both the member and non-member versions of an overloaded operator at the same time, make sure that the cases in which they are applied are distinctive. (e.g., Applicable operand types are different, etc.) Otherwise, the compiler wouldn't know which one to use and would throw an error or warning upon encountering one.

• Overloading unary operators as global functions(++, --, -, !):

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  ReturnType operatorOp(Type &obj)
  2
                     --
  3
                     operator goes here!
  

  Example:

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  Number operator-(const Number &obj);
  2
  Number operator++(Number &obj);               // pre-increment
  3
  Number operator++(Number &obj, int);          // post-increment
  4
  bool   operator!(const Number &obj);
  5
  
  6
  Number n1(100);
  7
  Number n2 = -n1;      // operator-(n1)
  8
  n2 = ++n1;            // operator++(n1)
  9
  n2 = n1++;            // operator++(n1, int)
  

  In the case of the unary operators, a single object is in the parameter list. In the case of the binary operators, two objects are in the parameter list.

• Implementation of operator - as a global function: (make lowercase) It is assumed that this function has been declared as a friend to the Mystring class.

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  1
  Mystring operator-(const Mystring &obj)
  2
  {
  3
      char *buff = new char[std::strlen(obj.str) + 1];
  4
      std::strcpy(buff, obj.str);
  5
      for (size_t i = 0; i < std::strlen(buff); i++)
  6
          buff[i] = std::tolower(buff[i]);
  7
      Mystring temp(buff);
  8
      delete[] buff;
  9
      return temp;
  10
  }
  

  You CANNOT have both the member and non-member versions of this overloaded operator at the same time. Or the compiler wouldn't know which one to use. You can only have one or the other.

• Overloading binary operators as global functions (+, -, ==, !=, <, >, etc.):

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  1
  ReturnType operatorOp(const Type &lhs, const Type &rhs);
  2
                     --
  3
                     operator goes here!
  

  Example:

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  1
  Number operator+(const Number &lhs, const Number &rhs);
  2
  Number operator-(const Number &lhs, const Number &rhs);
  3
  bool operator==(const Number &lhs, const Number &rhs);
  4
  bool operator<(const Number &lhs, const Number &rhs);
  5
  
  6
  Number n1(100), n2(200);
  7
  Number n3 = n1 + n2;          // operator+(n1, n2)
  8
  n3 = n1 - n2:                 // operator-(n1, n2)
  9
  if (n1 == n2) ...             // operator==(n1, n2)
  

  Implementation of operator==:

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  1
  bool operator==(const Mystring &lhs, const Mystring &rhs)
  2
  {
  3
      if (std::strcmp(lhs.str, rhs.str) == 0)
  4
          return true;
  5
      else
  6
          return false;
  7
  }
  

  If declared as a friend of Mystring, it can access a private attribute str. Otherwise a getter function must be used.

  The code is almost the same as it was for the member version except that now it has an LHS object instead of the this pointer.

  Implementation of operator+ (concatenation):

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  1
  Mystring operator+(const Mystring &lhs, const Mystring &rhs)
  2
  {
  3
      size_t buff_size = std::strlen(lhs.str) + std::strlen(rhs.str) + 1;
  4
      char *buff = new char[buff_size];
  5
      std::strcpy(buff, lhs.str);
  6
      std::strcat(buff, rhs.str);
  7
      Mystring temp(buff);
  8
      delete[] buff;
  9
      return temp;
  10
  }
  11
  Mystring larry("Larry");
  12
  Mystring moe("Moe");
  13
  Mystring stooges(" is one of the three stooges");
  14
  
  15
  Mystring result = larry + stooges;    // larry.operator+(stooges);
  16
  result = moe + " is also a stooge";   // moe.operator+("is also a stooge");
  17
  
  18
  result = "Moe" + stooges;             // OK with non-member functions
  

Notice that now the very last line of code is legal with the global (non-member) overloading function.

• Test driver:

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  32
  1
  #include <iostream>
  2
  #include <vector>
  3
  #include "Mystrin.h"
  4
  
  5
  using namespace std;
  6
  
  7
  int main(int argc, char *argv[])
  8
  {
  9
      Mystring larry("Larry");
  10
      larry.display();          // Larry
  11
  
  12
      larry = -larry;
  13
      larry.display();          // larry
  14
  
  15
      cout << boolalpha << endl;
  16
      Mystring moe("Moe");
  17
      Mystring stooge = larry;
  18
  
  19
      cout << (larry == moe) << endl;       // false
  20
      cout << (larry == stooge) << endl;    // true
  21
  
  22
      //Mystring stooges = larry + "Moe";
  23
      Mystring stooges = "Larry" + moe;     // Legal with non-member function
  24
      stooges.display();                    // LarryMoe
  25
  
  26
      Mystring two_stooges = moe + " " + Larry;
  27
      two_stooges.display();                // Moe Larry
  28
      Mystring three_stooges = moe + " " + larry + " " + "Curly";
  29
      three_stooges.display();              // Moe larry Curly
  30
  
  31
      return 0;
  32
  }
  

Overloading Stream Insertion and Extraction Operators (<<, >>)

• This will allow us to insert/extract our Mystring objects to/from streams. (This makes our classes feel and behave more like a built-in C++ type.)

• Doesn't make sense to implement as member functions.

  Overloading operators as member functions requires left operand to be a user-defined class but this is not the way insertion/extraction operators are normally used.

  xxxxxxxxxx
  2
  1
  Mystring jack;
  2
  jack << cout;       // Hun? Not consistent with how << is used with C++ built-in types
  

  xxxxxxxxxx
  2
  1
  Mystring jack;
  2
  cout << jack;       // This is the way << is used with C++ built-in types
  

• Makes more sense to overload these operators as global functions!

• Overloading stream insertion operator:

  xxxxxxxxxx
  6
  1
  std::stream& operator<<(std::ostream &os, const Mystring &obj)
  2
  {
  3
      os << obj.str;        // if friend function
  4
      //os << obj.get_str();  // if not friend function, then must use the public getter function
  5
      return os;
  6
  }
  

  Return a reference to the ostream (i.e., output stream reference) so we can keep inserting. Don't return ostream by value! (This will incur unnecessary copying of the stream.)

• Overloading stream insertion operator:

  xxxxxxxxxx
  8
  1
  std::istream& operator>>(std::istream &is, Mystring &obj)
  2
  {
  3
      char *buff = new char[1000];
  4
      is >> buff;
  5
      obj = Mystring(buff);     // if copy or move assignment are predefined
  6
      delete[] buffer;
  7
      return is;
  8
  }
  

  We want to modify the passed object so this function should NOT be const.

  Update the object passed in.

  Return a reference to the istream so we can do chain insert.

  Depending on the data we want to read, we can get the data from the input stream and either store it locally or store it directly in the object.

• Test driver:

  xxxxxxxxxx
  23
  1
  #include <iostream>
  2
  #include "Mystrin.h"
  3
  
  4
  using namespace std;
  5
  
  6
  int main(int argc, char *argv[])
  7
  {
  8
      Mystring larry("Larry");
  9
      Mystring moe("Moe");
  10
      Mystring curly;
  11
  
  12
      cout << "Enter the third stooge's first name: ";
  13
      cin >> curly;
  14
  
  15
      cout << "The three stooges are " << larry << " " << moe << " " << curly << endl;
  16
  
  17
      cout << "\nEnter the three stooges names separated by a space: ";
  18
      cin >> larry >> moe >> curly;
  19
  
  20
      cout << "The three stooges are " << larry << " " << moe << " " << curly << endl;
  21
  
  22
      return 0;
  23
  }
  

Complete Mystring Class

==, -, + oerators are overloaded as both member and non-member functions. As this can cause some ambiguity issues, it would be safe to test (or comment out) one group at a time.

Mystring class declaration:

xxxxxxxxxx
34
1
#ifndef MYSTRING_H
2
#define MYSTRING_H
3

4
class Mystring
5
{
6
    friend bool operator==(const Mystring &lhs, const Mystring &rhs);
7
    friend Mystring operator-(const Mystring &obj);
8
    friend Mystring operator+(const Mystring &lhs, const Mystring &rhs);
9
    friend std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream &os, const Mystring &rhs);
10
    friend std::istream& operator>>(std::istream &is, Mystring &rhs);
11

12
private:
13
    char *str;    // pointer to a char[] that holds a C-style string
14

15
public:
16
    Mystring();                               // default constructor
17
    Mystring(const char *s);                  // parameterized constructor
18
    Mystring(const Mystring &source);         // copy constructor
19
    Mystring(Mystring &&source);              // move constructor
20
    ~Mystring();                              // destructor
21

22
    Mystring& operator=(const Mystring &rhs); // copy assignment operator overloading
23
    Mystring& operator=(Mystring &&rhs);      // move assignment operator overloading
24

25
    Mystring operator-() const;                       // make lowercase
26
    Mystring operator+(const Mystring &rhs) const;    // concatenate
27
    bool operator==(const Mystring &rhs) const;       // equality operator
28

29
    void display() const;
30
    int get_length() const;                   // getter
31
    const char* get_str() const;              // getter
32
};
33

34
#endif // MYSTRING_H

Mystring class implementation:

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173
1
#include <cstring>    // behind the scenes, Mystring class uses c-string library
2
#include <iostream>
3
#include "Mystring.h"
4

5
// default constructor
6
Mystring::Mystring()
7
    :str(nullptr)
8
{
9
    str = new char[1];
10
    *str = '\0';
11
}
12

13
// parameterized constructor
14
Mystring::Mystring(const char *s)
15
    :str(nullptr)
16
{
17
    // if an empty string has been passed, create an empty string ""
18
    if (s == nullptr)
19
    {
20
        str = new char[1];
21
        *str = '\0';
22
    }
23
    else
24
    {
25
        str = new char[std::strlen(s) + 1];
26
        std::strcpy(str, s);
27
    }
28
}
29

30
// copy constructor
31
Mystring::Mystring(const Mystring &source)
32
    : str(nullptr)
33
{
34
    str = new char[std::strlen(source.str) + 1];
35
    std::strcpy(str, source.str);
36
}
37

38
// move constructor
39
Mystring::Mystring(Mystring &&source)
40
    :str(source.str)          // stealing the pointer of the source object
41
{
42
    source.str = nullptr;
43
}
44

45
// destructor
46
Mystring::~Mystring()
47
{
48
    delete[] str;
49
}
50

51
// copy assignment operator
52
Mystring& Mystring::operator=(const Mystring &rhs)
53
{
54
    // check for self assignment
55
    if (this == &rhs)
56
        return *this;     // if so, return current object
57

58
    delete[] str;         // deallocate storage for 'this->str' since we are overwriting it
59
                          // delete[] this->str; also works
60
    str = new char[std::strlen(rhs.str) + 1];  // allocate storage for the deep copy
61
    std::strcpy(str, rhs.str);    // perform the copy
62

63
    return *this;     // return the LHS object by reference to allow chain assignment
64
}
65

66
// move assignment operator
67
Mystring& Mystring::operator=(Mystring &&rhs)
68
{
69
    // check for self assignment
70
    if (this == &rhs)     // self assignment
71
        return *this;     // return current object
72

73
    delete[] str;         // deallocate current storage
74
    str = rhs.str;        // steal the pointer (NOT a deep copy)
75
    rhs.str = nullptr;    // null out the rhs object (to prevent memory leak)
76
    return *this;         // return current object
77
}
78

79
// equality
80
bool Mystring::operator==(const Mystring &rhs) const
81
{
82
    return (std::strcmp(str, rhs.str) == 0); 
83
}
84

85
// make lowercase
86
Mystring Mystring::operator-() const
87
{
88
    char *buff = new char[std::strlen(str) + 1];
89
    std::strcpy(buff, str);
90
    for (size_t i = 0; std::strlen(buff); i++)
91
        buff[i] = std::tolower(buff[i]);
92
    Mystring temp(buff);
93
    delete[] buff;
94
    return temp;
95
}
96

97
// concatenate
98
Mystring Mystring::operator+(const Mystring &rhs) const
99
{
100
    char *buff = new char[std::strlen(str) + std::strlen(rhs.str) + 1];
101
    std::strcpy(buff, str);
102
    std::strcat(buff, rhs.str);
103
    Mystring temp(buff);
104
    delete[] buff;
105
    return temp;
106
}
107

108
// display method
109
void Mystring::display() const
110
{
111
    std::cout << str << ":" << get_length() << std::endl;
112
}
113

114
// length getter
115
int Mystring::get_length() const
116
{
117
    return std::strlen(str);
118
}
119

120
// string getter
121
const char* Mystring::get_str() const
122
{
123
    return str;
124
}
125

126
// equality (global)
127
bool operator==(const Mystring &lhs, const Mystring &rhs)
128
{
129
    return (std::strcmp(lhs.str, rhs.str) == 0);
130

131
}
132

133
// make lowercase
134
Mystring operator-(const Mystring &obj)
135
{
136
    char *buff = new char[strlen(obj.str) + 1];
137
    std::strcpy(buff, obj.str);
138
    for (size_t i = 0; i < std::strlen(buff); i++)
139
        buff[i] = tolower(buff[i]);
140
    Mystring temp(buff);
141
    delete[] buff;
142
    return temp;
143
}
144

145
// concatenation
146
Mystring operator+(const Mystring &lhs, const Mystring &rhs)
147
{
148
    char *buff = new char[std::strlen(lhs.str) + std::strlen(rhs.str) + 1];
149
    std::strcpy(buff, lhs.str);
150
    std::strcat(buff, rhs.str);
151
    Mystring temp(buff);
152
    delete[] buff;
153
    return temp;
154
}
155

156
// stream insertion operator
157
std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream &os, const Mystring &obj)
158
{
159
    os << obj.str;        // if friend function
160
    //os << obj.get_str();  // if not friend function
161
    return os;
162
}
163

164
// stream extraction operator
165
std::istream& operator>>(std::istream &is, Mystring &obj)
166
{
167
    char *buff = new char[1000];
168
    is >> buff;
169
    obj = Mystring(buff); // since we have efficient move assignemt, it will be called
170
                          // (steal the pointer)
171
    delete[] buff;
172
    return is;
173
}

References

Mitropoulos, F. (2022). Beginning C++ Programming - From Beginner to Beyond [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.udemy.com/course/beginning-c-plus-plus-programming/